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A Note on Jainism
By
Ranu Jain
(Reader, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai, India)
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| Jainism
is popularly known for its properties of Ahimsa (non violence) and
Aparigraha (self control). In the world of philosophy its important
contribution lies in introducing the doctrines of Anekanta vada
and Syad vada. An in-depth understanding of Jainism reveals its
strong individualistic orientation and propagation of the principles
of equality, synthesis, tolerance and self responsibility.
The antiquity of Jainism is located in a period much earlier to
6th century B. C. or to the Stone Age, the period of Rishabh Dev,
the first Tirthankara (prophet), who supposedly has civilized the
world. The teachings of Rishabh Dev are supposed to have reached
the modern Jains through a chain of 24 Tirthankaras, Mahavira being
the last one in the chain.
Among these 24 Tirthankaras, historical evidences are available
only for the last two viz. Parsvanatha (9th century B.C. or 250
years before the period of Mahavira) and Mahavira (599-527 B.C.).
Parsvanatha is associated with Nirgrantha order, in which the modern
Jainism finds its roots. It is important to note that Mahavira's
family was the follower of the Nirgrantha order and Mahavira's Jainism
has furthered the Chaturyama Dharma of the Nirgrantha order.
The Jain Text
Unlike many religions, the Jain text is not God's dictums. Acknowledging
the dominant prevalence of oral tradition in the era of Mahavira,
Jains claim an access to the teachings of Mahavira through oral
transmissions across generations of Acharyas (teachers). The written
text of Jainism dates back to 980 years after the demise of Mahavira.
For Jains the canonical literature of Jainism comprise 14 Purvas
and 11 Angas. In the process of oral transmission of the text, 14
Purvas, which reckoned to have made the 12th Anga or Drishtivada,
are supposed to be extinct. The Digambars (a sect of Jainism) feel
that gradually Angas also got extinct thus making it impossible
to reconstruct the words of Mahavira. Hence for construing Jainism,
the Digambaras mainly rely on the writings of their Acharyas like,
Kundakunda, Umasvami, Pushpadanta, Bhutavali, Ganadharacharya, Svami
Kartikeya, Vattakera etc. It is important to note that even among
the Svetambaras, who hold belief in the continued existence of 11
Angas, the writings of Acharya and even of Jain laities are permissible
and are, in reality, highly appreciated.
More specifically, unlike Hindu text the Jain text are accessible
to all irrespective of their caste, class and creed. This accessibility
has provided a scope for interpretation of the text by people thus
attributing contemporary relevance to the text. It is this contemporary
relevance and possibility of interpretation that has resulted in
sustained identification of the Jains with their religious philosophy
and practice.
The Jain Sects
Svetambara and Digambara are two major sects in the Jain religious
community. One does not find consensus in the year of emergence
of these sects. For Svetambaras it is 83 A.D. while the Digambaras
trace it to the year 80 A.D.
The literary meaning of the term `Digambara' is `the one, who puts
on the sky', while, that of `Svetambara' is `the one who puts on
white clothes'. According to Digambaras, it is essential to denounce
every worldly thing including one's clothes for salvation. For Svetambara,
on the other hand, one can put on limited white clothes as they
are not obstructive to salvation. Some other differences between
the two sects are:
- For Digambaras women cannot attain nirvana, hence, the 19th
Tirthankara Mallinath/sena was a male.
- For Digambaras Kevala Gyani do not require food for sustenance.
- For Digambaras embryo of Mahavira was not transplanted from
the womb of a Brahmin woman to that of a Kshatriya woman.
- For Digambaras the Jain sacred text are completely extinct.
- For Digambaras Mahavira did not marry.
Over the years both the Svetambara and the Digambara sects developed
various sub sects. The following chart mentions some of the popular
ones. |
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| The
sub sect of Mandir Margi or Murtipujak is the only sect that prescribes
idol worshipping. Not only do the Murtipujaks worship the idols
of the twenty four prophets but also perform the rituals for a number
of Gods and Goddesses associated with these prophets like, Goddess
Padmavati associated with the Tirthankar Parsvanath. As the chart
shows, the Mandir Margis are further divided into various `Gachachas'.
However, these Gachachas are result of minor differences in opinion
on religious issues and as such do not extend any fissile impact
upon the social life of the Jains. The alokik (other worldly) dharma
of Jainism does not bind its followers to any particular sect or
doctrine. People are free to choose their own faith. That explains
presence of more than one sect in one family.
The Concept of Jina
The most striking feature of Jainism is that the religion neither
advocates the notion of God nor the practice of 'blind faith'. It
is a religion of human beings rather individuals and advocates conquering
world passions by controlling the self through one's own efforts.
To quote Sangave (1980:190-1)
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| Jainism
is nothing but a set of principles preached by such persons
(who have attained salvation). Hence, Jainism is not an 'Apaurusheya'
religion, i.e., a religion propounded by a non-human being
or based on a sacred book of non-human origin. On the contrary,
it is a religion of purely human origin and it has emanated
from the mouth of a dignitary who has secured the omniscience
and self control by his own personal efforts (parenthesis
mine). |
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| Perhaps
that is why, Jainism places high value on Parameshthin or those
who either have attained Nirvana (salvation) or are on its way.
In the hierarchy of Parameshthin, top position is assigned to 'Siddha'
or the one who has attained 'Siddha Chakra' (salvation or liberation
from the life cycle). Having liberated from this-worldly affairs,
the Siddhas neither are concerned nor can influence this-worldly
affairs. Next position among these Parameshthin is assigned to the
'Tirthankara' or the one who have attained 'Kevala Gyana' (omniscience)
but not nirvana yet. These Tirthankaras are prophets with the responsibility
of propagating religion to the laity. After demise these Tithankaras
attain nirvana and hence do not remain in the position to influence
this world affairs. As has been mentioned earlier, the Jainas are
supposed to have 24 Tirthankaras. The names are given in the appendix
I.
The above two categories of Parameshthin refer to those who have
attained omniscience and salvation; however, the Jains also have
three categories of Parameshthin who are on the way to omniscience
and salvation. These are 'Upadhyay' or head of ascetics; 'Acharya'
or the teachers and 'Sadhu'/ 'Maharaj Sahib' or the ascetics.
Interestingly, Jainism distinguishes between the Lokik (this worldly)
and Alokik (other worldly) religion, with an emphasis on the alokik
religion, which aims to make the laity prepare for ascetic way of
life that would ultimately lead to nirvana. One finds three categories
among the laities: Yati or those who despite not being ascetics
follow the rigorous life pattern of the ascetics; Sravaks/Sravikas,
or those who practice 12 vratas (appendix II) prescribed in the
Jain scriptures for an ideal Jain. The lowest rung in the hierarchy
goes to those who use the nomenclature of 'Jain' due to ascriptive
compulsions.
It is important to note that in Jainism all the above mentioned
are open categories accessible to all irrespective of their religious
affiliation, gender and class positions.
The Jain Philosophy
Due to space constraint, it will not be possible for us to discuss
the Jain philosophy in details. However, attempts would be made
to capture certain salient features of Jainism. For convenience
of discussion, various Jain philosophical aspects would be covered
under two headings:
- Doctrine of Karma
- Doctrines of Anekantavada, Syadvada and Nayas
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| Like
Hindu religion the doctrine of karma forms the pivot of Jainism.
It appears similar to Hindu religion when it focuses on the notions
of life cycle and reincarnation in accordance to one's karma in
the previous births. However, it differs from Hindu religion in
projecting the birth in non evolutionary manner, i.e., in case of
Jainism a soul of human being in this birth can be born as an animal
in the next birth, similarly the relationships in this birth may
not be same in the next one. For instance, the relationship of mother
and son may develop into the relationship of brother and sister
in the next birth.
Further, the Jain doctrine of karma advocates principle of equality.
According to the Hindus, one cannot attain salvation till one reaches
Brahminhood. For a Jain, it is possible to nirjara (get rid of)
karma irrespective of the ascriptive status that an individual holds.
It is the only religion which accommodates possibility of females
attaining salvation at least in case of the Svetambara sect, in
which, Mallinath Tirthankara has been considered to be a woman.
The Jain doctrine of Karma dwells on the notion that a human being
comprises both, the spiritual and the material. It states that every
mundane soul is bound by subtle particles of matter known as Karma.
Karma, according to Jain metaphysics, is an atomic matter that clings
to the soul when the soul interacts with matter, especially with
`Dharma’ (punya) and `Adharma’ (papa), which are `Sukshma
Pudgala’ (atomic matters). Karma clings to the soul and obscures
its pure quality of `Ananta Darsana’ (infinite perception);
`Ananta Gyana’ (infinite knowledge); `Ananta Virya’
(infinite power) and’ `Ananta Sukha’ (infinite bliss).
The impact of different types of Karma may be different. Some may
obscure knowledge, some right intuition, sensation, comfort, sleep,
faith, age, individual status and the status of family. Above all,
Karma may obscure the desire to perform a good activity. According
to the Jain doctrine of Karma, each Karma has its predestined limit
and that both good and bad karma hinder the process of attaining
salvation.
The Jain doctrine of karma promulgates individualism. It states
that every individual can liberate her/his soul from the karmic
matters. The liberation, however, has to be effected through the
person’s own efforts. No one – yaksha, priest, temple,
kin or friend – can extend assistance in this process. The
scriptures, however, mention that the practice of `Samyag Darshana’
(right perception), `Samyag Gyan’ (right knowledge) and `Samyag
Charitra’ (right conduct) would help in attaining the omniscience
and the salvation.
The Doctrines of Anekantavada, Syadvada & Nayas:
The doctrine of Anekantavada is considered the central
theme in Jain philosophy. It is a philosophy of ‘synthesis’
and ‘reconciliation’; a theory of ‘many sided
nature of reality’. To quote Matilal (1981:1-2) |
The Anekanta philosophy, being itself a synthetic development,
historically presupposes the existence of many rival and well-developed
philosophical schools. In fact, the Jain philosophy unfolded
itself in the context of many severe and serious controversies
among such schools as Samkhya, Buddha, Nyaya, Mimamsa and
Vedanta.
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He further states that,
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The term ‘anekanta-vada’ is … used …
as a method which allows for reconciliation, integration and
synthesis of conflicting philosophic views. (ibid: 25)
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The
Anekanta philosophy appears mainly to synthesize permanent and changing
notions of natural elements and reality. Synthesizing both the Brahminical
and Buddhist schools, it states that the elements are permanent
only to the extent the reference is made to their substance. Their
characteristics originate and perish, thus, attributing different
forms to the substance at different points of time. The significance
of the doctrine of Anekantavada can best be understood when placed
with reference to Syadvada and Nayas. Syadvada mainly refers to
‘the dialectic of sevenfold predication’ implying manifold/complex
nature of natural elements including human beings. In practical
terms it draws attention to the fact that a single entity is variegated
by a plurality of attributes. The doctrine of Nayas or Nayavada
is ‘the doctrine of standpoint’. The Jain theory of
Nayas proclaims that a view point ‘is only one out of many,
equally viable, standpoints…. (Hence) when we emphasize only
one standpoint by excluding all others, we employ a durnaya ‘an
incorrect philosophical method.’ (ibid: 30)
Taken together, the three doctrines focus upon the most relevant
doctrine in the contemporary world namely, the doctrine of the multifaceted
ness of the truth/reality. The doctrines emphasize complex nature
of reality of elements and human beings, stressing upon the need
to forego rigid stand on any one viewpoint/ interpretation of reality,
implying the need for respect for alternative even contradictory
viewpoints/interpretations. The doctrines imply that the ultimate
truth (Kevala Gyana) may be absolute (universal or without contradictions).
However, due to our partial understanding, it may appear as many
truths, at times even contradictory to each other. These apparent
contradictions loose their significance once placed in context of
the absolute truth. At that time, the earlier perceived contradictions
may appear complementary to each other as then they would be understood
in their totality. The relevance of philosophy for the quest of
knowledge is that every reality (truth) should be understood in
time-place-object dimension, as change in any one would initiate
apparent changes in any given reality. It is needless to state that
at the level of individualism it will propagate the lessons of tolerance
for differences and respect for alternative viewpoints. At this
level it will also advocate self reliance and the need to accept
responsibilities for one’s own Karma including both the thought
and the deed.
Reference:
1.
Matilal B. K., 1981, The Central Philosophy of Jainism (Anekanta-Vada),
L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad.
2. Roy A.K., 1984, A History of the Jainas, Gitanjali Publishing
House, New Delhi
3. Sangave V.A., 1980 (1959), Jaina Community: A Social Survey,Popular
Prakashan, Mumbai
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